geranylgeraniol

Tag: Mevalonate pathway

  • Steroid Hormone Production Pathways

    TL/DR:

    Steroid hormones are made from cholesterol through a tightly regulated cellular pathway called steroidogenesis. This process also depends on efficient transport, enzyme function, and cell signaling. Geranylgeraniol (GG) supports these upstream cellular processes by facilitating hormone production efficiently.

    Steroid hormones are your body’s fatty messengers, derived from cholesterol, that keep stress in check, fire up your metabolism, maintain muscle tone, strengthen bones, and power reproductive health through a cell-powered process called steroidogenesis. But do you think that cholesterol alone is enough to drive steroid hormone production?

    Well, not exactly. Efficient steroidogenesis also depends on strong cellular communication, healthy mitochondrial activity, and proper cholesterol transport within cellular compartments. That’s where geranylgeraniol (GG) plays a supportive upstream role in the mevalonate pathway.

    Let’s take a closer look at steroid hormones and the various pathways that support them.

    What are Steroid Hormones?

    Steroid hormones are fatty chemical messengers made from cholesterol that slip easily into cells to control key body functions. They fall into following main groups:

    • Glucocorticoids like cortisol, which manage stress and energy use.
    • Mineralocorticoids like aldosterone that balances salt, and water.
    • Androgens such as testosterone build muscle and male traits.
    • Estrogens and progesterone control female reproduction and cycles.(1)

    Guess what! All steroid hormones share the same biochemical precursor, cholesterol, as their core building block. This shared cholesterol backbone helps the body balance hormones throughout the day, from energizing mornings to restorative evenings.

    Types of Steroid Hormones 

    How does Your Body Naturally Make Cholesterol?

    Inside the body, cholesterol is produced through an organized process. Let’s break it down into two simple steps:

    Cholesterol Formation via the Mevalonate Pathway

    • The mevalonate pathway acts like a cellular assembly line that builds cholesterol and key helpers like Geranylgeraniol (GG) from simple sugars
    • It begins when simple molecules derived from carbohydrates and fats are converted into HMG-CoA (3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A), which is then converted into mevalonate by the key enzyme, HMG-CoA reductase.
    • Mevalonate is gradually assembled into larger units called isoprenoids, which are then converted into squalene and ultimately into cholesterol.(2)

    From Cholesterol to Steroid Hormone Production

    • This cholesterol is not an end product; rather, it is the starting fuel for steroid hormone production.
    • Once formed, it is delivered to hormone-producing tissues such as the adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes.
    • Within these cells, cholesterol is transported into the mitochondria, where it is converted to pregnenolone, the first step in the steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway.
    • From pregnenolone, the body creates essential hormones like cortisol, testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone.
    • In this way, the mevalonate pathway provides the biochemical foundation for the initiation of steroid hormone synthesis.(3)
     Cholesterol Formation and Steroid Hormone Synthesis 

    Steroid pathways reflect the body’s precision in transforming raw materials into functional hormones. Let’s break this down in the next section.

    The Steroid Hormone Production Pathways

    Steroid hormone production starts long before hormones are made. While the body synthesizes most of its cholesterol internally through the mevalonate pathway, additional cholesterol is also supplied by LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein) and HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein) circulating in the blood.

    Preparing Cholesterol for Hormone Production

    • Hormone-producing cells, such as those in the adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes, actively take up circulating cholesterol and store it as cholesterol esters (inactive storage form).
    • Now, whenever hormone synthesis is required, stored cholesterol is released and directed toward the mitochondria, where hormone production begins.(4)
    • As cholesterol cannot cross the mitochondrial membrane on its own, active transport is required, and these steps govern the speed of hormone synthesis.
    • As a result, steroid hormone production is often limited by cholesterol transport efficiency, rather than by the total amount of cholesterol available.

    Did you know?

    Transporting Cholesterol into the Mitochondria is the Rate-Limiting Step and is the most critical control point in steroidogenesis.

    Inside the Mitochondria: Where Steroid Hormone Synthesis Begins

    When cholesterol reaches the inner mitochondrial membrane, it is irreversibly converted into pregnenolone. This process relies on energy, oxygen, and electron transfer.(5)

    This step determines the maximum rate at which steroid hormones can be produced.

    Pregnenolone acts like a central hub. From here, the pathway branches into distinct directions, depending on which enzymes are active and which tissue is involved.

    1. Stress hormone pathway (Cortisol):

    From the central hub, pregnenolone can be converted to progesterone and subsequently to cortisol, primarily in the adrenal glands. Cortisol is essential for regulating the body’s stress response.(6)

    2. Sex hormone pathway (Testosterone & Estrogen):

    Pregnenolone can also be converted into DHEA (Dehydroepiandrosterone), which serves as the building block for testosterone and estroge n. This pathway operates in the adrenal glands, ovaries, testes, and peripheral tissues, including fat and muscle tissue.

    Also Read: Geranylgeraniol(GG)and Testosterone: New insights

    3. Mineral hormone pathway (Aldosterone):

    In another direction, pregnenolone is converted to progesterone, which is then converted to aldosterone. This pathway supports fluid and electrolyte balance by helping kidneys

    Steroid Hormone Pathways

    Characteristic Pathway Location Function 
     Stress Hormones (Cortisol)  PregnenoloneProgesterone Cortisol Adrenal Glands Supports Stress Response, Inflammation Control, Blood Sugar Regulation and Energy Balance 
    Sex Hormones (Testosterone and Estrogen) PregnenoloneDHEATestosteroneEstrogen Testes, Ovaries, Adrenal Glands, Peripheral Tissues Supports muscle strength, bone density, metabolism and reproductive Health 
    Fluid & Blood Pressure Control (Aldosterone) PregnenoloneProgesteroneAldosterone Adrenal Glands Regulates salt balance, water retention, and blood pressure via the kidneys. 

    Steroid pathways provide structure, while enzymes and cellular signals provide precision. Let’s understand how enzymes and cellular signals keep hormone production in balance.

    The Enzymes and Signal Network Behind Hormonal Balance

    Enzymes involved in steroid hormone biosynthesis must be precisely anchored to cell membranes, particularly within the mitochondria and the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, to convert cholesterol efficiently

    While hormones carry the message, their balanced production depends on upstream cellular support. This is where Geranylgeraniol (GG) plays a supportive role. Thinking How? Let’s decode in the next section.

    Geranylgeraniol (GG) and Its Role in Steroid Formation

    Geranylgeraniol (GG) is a naturally occurring isoprenoid and an important metabolic derivative of the mevalonate pathway, the same pathway as the isoprenoid–cholesterol synthesis pathway.

    Although traditionally associated with cholesterol metabolism, growing evidence indicates that GG can directly influence steroid hormone biosynthesis, particularly in steroid-producing cells.

    Rather than acting as a hormone itself, GG supports the signaling and transport mechanisms that enable efficient steroidogenesis.

    Also read: A comprehensive Guide to Geranylgeraniol(GG) Supplements

    Key Roles of GG in Steroid Formation Include:

    • GG enhances the production of steroid hormones (e.g., progesterone and testosterone) in steroidogenic cells by activating the cAMP/PKA (Protein Kinase A) signaling pathway, which is a central regulator of steroidogenesis.
    • This effect occurs through stimulation of adenylate cyclase, which raises intracellular cAMP (cyclic Adenosine Monophosphate) levels without suppressing phosphodiesterase activity.(8)
    • GG increases the expression of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), which is responsible for the rate-limiting transport of cholesterol into mitochondria, a critical first step in the synthesis of steroid hormones.
    • By improving cholesterol transport and intracellular signaling, GG helps optimize how efficiently steroid hormones are produced at the cellular level. (9)

    Clinical Evidence: Geranylgeraniol (GG) and Testosterone

    • A clinical study published in the Nutraceuticals journal evaluated 8-week, randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial of healthy adults that evaluated safety and hormone markers.
    • One group of participants was given GG in a dose-escalated range of 150–300 mg per day, another group was given a placebo, and exploratory analysis were done. Overall, GG did not significantly alter blood chemistry, hematology, or general hormone profiles. The following table summarizes key findings:
    Parameter Details 
    Study Design Randomized, placebo-controlled Clinical Trial 
    Journal Nutraceuticals 
    Duration 8 weeks 
    Participants Healthy Adults 
    Intervention Geranylgeraniol (GG), dose-escalated 
    Dose 150mg to 180mg 
    Key Findings(Exploratory Analysis) Men with low baseline Testosterone(<700mg/dL)showed significant increase in total,free and bioavailable testosterone.  
    Placebo Comparison No testosterone increase was seen in placebo group 
    Conclusion GG supported testosterone levels in men with low baseline values without altering hormone in healthy individuals 

    Overall, these findings position GG as an upstream modulator of steroidogenesis, supporting the biological processes that allow hormone production to proceed smoothly rather than forcing hormone output directly.

    Based on the insights discussed above, the evidence summary below illustrates how these effects appear in clinical studies.

    Evidence Summary: Studies on Steroid Hormone Production and Geranylgeraniol (GG)

    Study / Year Design N Population / Model Dose / Intervention Duration Key Result 
    Sidhu & Mishra, 2024(10) Narrative review  — Human steroidogenic tissues — — Demonstrated that steroidogenesis is regulated by cholesterol trafficking, mitochondrial readiness, and not cholesterol levels alone. 
    Ho HJ et al., 2018(8) In-vitro — Mouse Leydig tumor cells (I-10) Geranylgeraniol (GGOH) 0–24 h GG increased progesterone and testosterone by activating the steroidogenesis signaling. 
    London E et al., 2015(6) Observational / tissue analysis — Human cortisol-producing adrenal lesions — — Altered cholesterol biosynthesis and intracellular trafficking directly influence cortisol production capacity. 
    Miller, 2013(5) Review — Human steroidogenic tissues — — Highlighted the essential role of signaling pathways in initiating steroid hormone synthesis. 
    Rone MB et al., 2009(3) Review — Human & animal steroidogenic cells — — Identified cholesterol transport into mitochondria as the rate-limiting step in steroid hormone production. 
    • Reviews and human tissue studies identify mitochondrial cholesterol trafficking as the key rate-limiting step in steroidogenesis.
    • Importantly, in-vitro data demonstrate geranylgeraniol (GG) helps hormone-producing cells work more efficiently by supporting key internal signals (cAMP/PKA) and proteins (StAR) needed to start hormone production, rather than directly forcing hormone levels to rise.

    Conclusion

    Steroid hormone production is a carefully coordinated cellular process that begins long before hormones enter the bloodstream. From cholesterol synthesis in the mevalonate pathway to precise transport into mitochondria and enzyme-driven conversions, every step must work in harmony.

    Geranylgeraniol (GG) fits into this system as an upstream supporter by helping maintain cellular signaling, protein positioning, and cholesterol movement that make steroidogenesis efficient and balanced.

    Rather than forcing hormone secretion, GG supports the biological infrastructure that enables the body to produce hormones appropriately, an approach that becomes especially relevant in aging, metabolic stress, or pathway disruption.

    Key Takeaways

    • Steroid hormones are all synthesized from cholesterol via a shared common pathway called steroidogenesis.
    • Cholesterol availability alone does not determine hormone levels.
    • Pregnenolone acts as the central hub from which stress, sex, and mineral hormones are formed.
    • Enzymes must be correctly anchored to mitochondrial and cellular membranes to function properly.
    • The mevalonate pathway supplies both cholesterol and supporting molecules suchb as geranylgeraniol (GG).

    FAQs  

    Q1. What is steroidogenesis?

    Steroidogenesis is the biological process by which the body converts cholesterol into steroid hormones, including cortisol, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, and aldosterone.

    Q2. Why is cholesterol important for hormone production?

    Cholesterol is essential because it is the precursor of all steroid hormones.

    Q3. What is pregnenolone and why is it important?

    Pregnenolone is the first hormone made from cholesterol and acts as the central branching point for all steroid hormone pathways.

    Q4. What role does the mevalonate pathway play in hormone health?

    The mevalonate pathway produces cholesterol and other molecules that support cellular signaling and energy processes needed for steroid hormone production.

    Q5. Can physically active individuals or athletes take GG?

    Yes, active individuals may use Geranylgeraniol to support muscle recovery, mitochondrial function, and exercise tolerance, especially during periods of intense training or recovery.

    References

    What are steroid hormones? A complete guide. Creative Proteomics. Published November 30, 2025. Accessed January 5, 2026.

    Buhaescu I, Izzedine H. Mevalonate pathway: A review of clinical and therapeutic implications. Clin Biochem. 2007;40(9-10):575-584. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2007.03.016

    Rone MB, Fan J, Papadopoulos V. Cholesterol transport in steroid biosynthesis: role of protein–protein interactions and implications in disease states. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2009;1791(7):646-658. doi:10.1016/j.bbalip.2009.02.002

    Miller WL, Auchus RJ. The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders. Endocr Rev. 2011;32(1):81-151. doi:10.1210/er.2010-0013

    Miller WL. Steroid hormone synthesis in mitochondria. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 2013;379(1-2):62-73. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2013.04.014

    London E, Wassif CA, Horvath A, Tatsi C, Angelousi A, Karageorgiadis AS, Porter FD, Stratakis CA. Cholesterol biosynthesis and trafficking in cortisol-producing lesions of the adrenal cortex. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2015;100(10):3660-3667. doi:10.1210/jc.2015-2212.

    Zhang FL, Casey PJ. Protein prenylation: molecular mechanisms and functional consequences. Annu Rev Biochem. 1996;65:241-269. doi:10.1146/annurev.bi.65.070196.001325

    Ho HJ, Shirakawa H, Giriwono PE, Ito A, Komai M. A novel function of geranylgeraniol in regulating testosterone production. J Biochem Mol Toxicol. 2018;32(3):e22038. doi:10.1002/jbt.22038

    Gheith R, Sharp M, Stefan M, Ottinger C, Lowery R, Wilson JM. The effects of geranylgeraniol on blood safety and sex hormone profiles in healthy adults: a dose-escalation, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Nutraceuticals. 2023;3(4):605-618. doi:10.3390/nutraceuticals3040043

    Sidhu SK, Mishra S. A cholesterol-centric outlook on steroidogenesis. In: Litwack G, ed. Vitamins and Hormones. Vol 124. Academic Press; 2024:405-428. doi:10.1016/bs.vh.2023.05.006

  • Biosynthesis Pathway: Mevalonate to Geranylgeraniol Conversion

    Biosynthesis Pathway: Mevalonate to Geranylgeraniol Conversion

    TL/DR- 

    The mevalonate pathway is your cell’s biochemical highway. Starting from acetyl-CoA, it passes through key checkpoints ending with the production of Geranylgeraniol (GG) — a vital compound for energy and mitochondrial function. 

    Inside every cell, a silent symphony of thousands of reactions unfolds, orchestrating the chemistry of life. These cellular pathways act like roadmaps, guiding molecules through a series of steps to produce energy, synthesize proteins, repair damage, and maintain balance. Without such order, cellular chemistry would be chaotic and inefficient.  

    Wondering! What is the mevalonate pathway? 

    At the heart of this symphony lies the mevalonate pathway—a central metabolic route that gives rise to vital biomolecules. Among these fascinating products, geranylgeraniol (GG) emerges as a molecule of special interest.  

    The Mevalonate Pathway and GG: Is It a Hidden Link Powering Cells, Hormones and Health? 

    Let’s decode together. 

    GG represents a molecular bridge between basic metabolism and advanced cellular functions. Understanding how the mevalonate pathway transforms simple precursors into GG gives us a glimpse of the inner blueprint of vitality. 

    It’s a reminder that the chemistry of life is not abstract; it’s happening inside us every moment, shaping wellness and longevity. 

    The Mevalonate Pathway: Your Body’s Molecular Superhighway

    The mevalonate pathway is like your body’s molecular superhighway; a bustling network where raw biochemical “fuel” is transformed into life-sustaining products. 

    It starts with acetyl-CoA, a small carbon building block generated from fats, carbohydrates, and proteins. Through a series of tightly regulated steps, acetyl-CoA is transformed into mevalonate which acts like a pivotal gateway molecule unlocking multiple downstream routes. 

    From this point, the pathway produces cholesterol, steroid hormones, vitamin D, CoQ10, and GG, each playing a critical role in metabolism, energy, and cellular repair.1 

    Step by Step Conversion: From Mevalonate to Geranylgeraniol 

    Ready for a quick tour of mevalonate pathway?. 

    Let’s take it step-by-step and unjam the molecular traffic! 

    Imagine mevalonate pathway as a molecular highway system with multiple checkpoints that control the flow of essential compounds. 

    1. It all begins at the on-ramp, where nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are broken down into acetyl-CoA, the basic fuel that feeds onto the highway.1 
    1. Acetyl CoA undergoes a process (condensation reaction) with another acetyl CoA to form Aceto Acetyl CoA. 
    Acetyl-CoA + Acetyl-CoA → (Condensation Reaction) → Acetoacetyl-CoA 
    1. Now, Aceto Acetyl CoA combines with another Acetyl CoA (Addition reaction) to form HMG-CoA (3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A) 
    1. The first major toll booth is the conversion of HMG-CoA into mevalonate, a critical control point. In this, HMG-CoA reductase enzyme reduces HMG-CoA to mevalonate using NADPH. (the body’s power bank).(2) 

    1. It’s the rate-limiting step — much like the busiest toll plaza that regulates traffic flow 

    2. Statins work by slowing traffic here, lowering cholesterol but also reducing downstream molecules like CoQ10 and Geranylgeraniol. 

    1. Once mevalonate is formed, phosphorylation steps take place. 

    Let’s discuss in short 

    • Mevalonate is phosphorylated to Mevalonate-5-Phosphate by enzyme Mevalonate kinase(3) 
    • Mevalonate-5-Phosphate gain phosphate from ATP via phosphomevalonate kinase and form Mevalonate-5-Diphosphate  
    Mevalonate-5-Diphosphate undergoes decarboxylation and phosphorylation by mevalonate-5-diphosphate decarboxylase → producing Isopentenyl Pyrophosphate (IPP) + CO₂ + Pi.  
    1.  Thus, in this pathway, enzymes act like traffic lights, converting mevalonate into smaller building blocks known as isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP). 
    1. These building blocks then merge to form geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP), and with additional steps, farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP). 
    1. Think of FPP as a major junction where the road splits into different exits. One exit takes you to cholesterol, essential for cell membranes, hormones, and vitamin D. Another side exit produces coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), a vital player in energy production and antioxidant defense(2) 
    1. Yet another route forms geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP), which gives rise to geranylgeraniol (GG), supporting protein signaling (and healthy cellular function.(4) 
    1. GG is the end-product of the road trip delivering bioactive benefits that support: 
    • Cellular energy balance
    • Mitochondrial function
    • Hormone and immune regulation
    • Anti-inflammatory pathways

    By visualizing this pathway as a traffic system, it becomes easier to understand how biochemical balance directly influences vitality, energy, and longevity. 

    Checkpoint (Traffic Stop) Biochemical Step Molecule Produced (Traffic Destination) Health Significance 
    On-Ramp Acetyl-CoA formation Acetyl-CoA Fuel from carbs, fats, proteins 
    Toll Booth HMG-CoA → Mevalonate Mevalonate Central control point of pathway 
    Traffic Light Mevalonate → Isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) IPP Building block for many biomolecules 
     Highway Split IPP ↔ Dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) DMAPP Alternate building block for isoprenoids 
    Merging Lane IPP + DMAPP → Geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) GPP Precursor for longer chains 
     Next Stretch GPP + IPP → Farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) FPP Key branching point molecule 
    ️ Major Exit Ramp FPP → Squalene → Cholesterol Cholesterol Cell membranes, hormones, vitamin D 
     Side Exit FPP → Ubiquinone (CoQ10) CoQ10 Energy production, antioxidant 
     Side Exit FPP → Geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate (GGPP) → Geranylgeraniol GG Protein prenylation, cellular signaling 
    Traffic Jam Pathway imbalance (overactive or blocked) – Linked to cardiovascular disease, inflammation, statin side effects 
    From Mevalonate to Geranylgeraniol: The Traffic of Life

    Geranylgeraniol: Tiny Molecule, Mighty Impact

    GG is gaining attention as more than just a chemical intermediate. Let’s find out how?

    • It is a biologically significant molecule that touches multiple aspects of human health.
    • One of its central roles lies in Protein prenylation(4), a process that enables key proteins to anchor within cell membranes, ensuring proper cell signaling and communication.
    • This same pathway connects GG to the biosynthesis of coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), a vital compound for cellular energy production and antioxidant defense.(5)
    • Beyond cellular mechanics, GG is increasingly studied for its influence on hormone regulation, particularly testosterone metabolism, which has implications for vitality and healthy aging.
    • Its importance extends to maintaining energy, supporting mitochondrial function, and potentially supporting muscle and bone strengthening.

    Also Read: Geranylgeraniol Explained: Benefits, Side Effects & Science Behind It

    GG represents the bridge between biochemistry and longevity, highlighting why natural compounds like this are becoming focal points in discussions of wellness, healthy aging, and preventive health.(6) 

    What Happens if Mevalonate Pathway is Blocked?

    Ever wondered if you get a traffic block with no entry ahead?

    As mevalonate pathway is a critical biochemical route, if this pathway is inhibited by drugs like statin (medications designed to lower cholesterol) several downstream effects occur:

    • Cholesterol synthesis declines, reducing hormone production (e.g., testosterone, estrogen, vitamin D)
    • CoQ10 levels drop, leading to reduced mitochondrial energy and may contribute to muscle fatigue or weakness.
    • Geranylgeraniol (GG) production decreases, impairing protein prenylation, which may affect bone and muscle health, testosterone balance, and neurological signaling.(6)
    • Cell signaling disruptions can occur, impacting processes tied to immune function and cognition.(7)

    Conclusion

    From pathway to powerhouse, GG emerges from mevalonate routes as more than just a by-product; it acts like a key player in energy, strength and balance.

    This pathway carries special importance because it fuels processes that touch nearly every aspect of health, as cholesterol balance influences heart health, while CoQ10 and geranylgeraniol connect directly to vitality and healthy aging.

    This pathway can be seen as both a marvel and a risk. When finely tuned, it sustains resilience, but when overactive or blocked, it can drive disorders ranging from cardiovascular disease to inflammation.

    Understanding this “highway” builds trust in the science of how everyday choices ripple down to molecular health and how the tiniest molecules can shape the biggest outcomes in wellness, making GG a true powerhouse of cellular health.

    Key Takeaways

    1. The Mevalonate Pathway = Metabolic Highway producing cholesterol, CoQ10, and GG.
    2. GG drives protein prenylation, energy balance, and cellular signaling.
    3. GG + CoQ10 act as complementary molecules thereby one powers, the other connects.
    4. Disruption (e.g., statins) lowers CoQ10 and GG, impacting vitality and muscle health.
    5. Supporting GG levels may enhance mitochondrial performance, hormone balance, and healthy aging.

    FAQ’s

    Q1. What is the mevalonate pathway and why is it important?

    The mevalonate pathway produces cholesterol, CoQ10 and products like GG.

    Q2. How does GG support cellular health?

    GG plays a crucial role in protein prenylation, a process that anchors proteins to cell membranes so they can communicate properly.

    Q3. What is GG’s connection to CoQ10?

    GG is a building block in the synthesis of CoQ10, a vital molecule for mitochondrial energy production and overall vitality. Low GG can mean less energy at the cellular vel.

    Q4. Can GG influence aging and wellness?

    Yes. Studies suggest GG supports bone health, testosterone balance linking it with healthy aging and resilience.

    Q5. Who may be benefitted from GG?

    Adults over 40, people on statins, athletes with high mitochondrial demand, individuals experiencing fatigue, muscle weakness or metabolic stress.

    References

    1. Sharma P. The Mevalonate Pathway: Central Hub of Cholesterol Metabolism, Isoprenoid Biosynthesis, and Disease Mechanisms. Published November 2025. Accessed November 10, 2025.
    2. Buhaescu I, Izzedine H. Mevalonate pathway: a review of clinical and therapeutical implications. Clin Biochem. 2007;40(9-10):575-584. doi:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2007.03.016
    3. Miziorko HM. Enzymes of the mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2011;505(2):131-143. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2010.09.028
    4. Palsuledesai CC, Distefano MD. Protein prenylation: enzymes, therapeutics, and biotechnology applications. ACS Chem Biol. 2015;10(1):51-62. doi:10.1021/cb500791
    5. Bentinger M, Tekle M, Dallner G. Coenzyme Q–biosynthesis and functions. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2010;396(1):74-79. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.02.147
    6. Saputra WD, Shono H, Ohsaki Y, Sultana H, Komai M, Shirakawa H. Geranylgeraniol inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in mouse-derived MG6 microglial cells via NF-κB signaling modulation. Int J Mol Sci. 2021;22(19):10543. doi:10.3390/ijms221910543
    7. Saisho Y. Statin-induced diabetes and its clinical implications. Diabetes Metab J. 2014;38(4):239-246. doi:10.4093/dmj.2014.38.4.23